Training programmes must be matched to the individual

1. Two athletes following the same programme rarely respond in the same way; programmes are tailored to the individual rather than copied from a template.
2. Four core factors shape individualisation: current fitness level, age, sex (including reproductive status), and the phase of the macrocycle.
3. For biologically female athletes, the menstrual cycle adds a further layer that programme design has to take into account.

Current fitness level sets the starting dose

1. The starting point of every programme is the athlete's current fitness level, established through baseline measurement and a needs analysis.
2. A training load that gives a useful stimulus to one athlete may be too low to drive adaptation in a more conditioned athlete, or too high and injury-causing for a less conditioned one.
3. Highly trained athletes often require much greater training volume or intensity to continue improving, because their bodies are already highly adapted.

Beginner athletes need low to moderate training with basic fitness goals

1. Individuals just starting to exercise or with minimal previous training experience need a programme that focuses on aerobic fitness, flexibility, and basic strength.
2. Intensity should be low to moderate, which allows the body to adapt without excessive fatigue or injury.

Intermediate athletes can progress to more specialised training

1. Those with some experience and a moderate level of fitness are ready for more specialised training, which may include developing speed, strength, or endurance.
2. Intensity and volume can be gradually increased to challenge the body further.

Advanced athletes need highly specialised and regularly reviewed programmes

1. These athletes have reached a high level of fitness and need highly specialised programmes to target specific performance goals.
2. The focus is on improving maximal strength, explosive power, or technical skills depending on the sport.

Age and sex influence training response and programme design

Age and sex play crucial roles in determining training response and influencing programme design.

Age-related considerations

Youth Athletes

1. Growing bodies require caution when designing training programmes.
2. The focus should be on developing general physical literacy (coordination, balance, flexibility) and introducing safe exercise techniques.

Older Athletes

1. As individuals age, they may experience decreased muscle mass, lower bone density, and a reduced cardiovascular capacity.
2. Training programmes for older athletes should prioritise strength training (especially for bone health), balance exercises, and low-impact aerobic activities.

Sex differences affect training response and programme planning

Men

1. Men typically have higher levels of muscle mass, testosterone, and endurance capacity, which may result in greater initial strength and higher capacity for anaerobic training (e.g., sprinting, powerlifting).
2. Higher average testosterone levels can support greater absolute strength gains, though the rate of relative gain can be similar across sexes.

Women

1. Women tend to have greater fat mass and lower muscle mass compared to men.
2. Women may experience specific hormonal fluctuations throughout their menstrual cycle, affecting strength, stamina, and recovery.

Sex influences injury risk in team sports

1. Injury rates differ between sexes in team sports in measurable ways.
2. Male players have a higher rate of overall, upper-extremity, hip and groin, thigh, and foot injuries compared with female players.
3. Female athletes show roughly a 2.15 times higher rate of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury than males.
4. No significant sex differences appear for sprains, strains, concussions, ankle sprains, or Achilles tendon injuries.
5. Male team-sport players benefit from extra attention to upper-extremity, hip and groin, and thigh injury prevention.
6. Female team-sport players benefit from targeted ACL injury prevention through neuromuscular training, landing mechanics, and posterior chain strengthening.

Hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle affect training response

1. Women experience hormonal fluctuations during their menstrual cycle, which can affect their training response.
2. Four hormones drive the cycle: oestrogen, progesterone, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinising hormone (LH).
3. The cycle is typically divided into four phases that can impact energy, mood, strength, and endurance: menstruation, late follicular, ovulation, and luteal.

1. Menstruation

1. The cycle begins with the first day of menstruation, when levels of oestrogen and progesterone are both low.
2. The uterus lining is shed, accompanied by bleeding, and common symptoms include cramps, heavy bleeding, and tiredness.
3. Energy levels are typically lower, and training during this phase should prioritise light aerobic exercises and low-intensity activities to avoid overexertion.

2. Late Follicular Phase

1. This is the time between the end of menstruation and ovulation, during which FSH and LH levels increase, oestrogen rises, and progesterone remains low.
2. Rising oestrogen produces a glycogen-sparing effect that shifts metabolism toward fat use during exercise.
3. High oestrogen also increases joint laxity, which can slightly raise injury risk during cutting, pivoting, and landing movements.
4. This phase is generally a good window for higher-intensity training, while warm-ups should reinforce landing mechanics.

3. Ovulation

1. Oestrogen peaks just before ovulation and then drops sharply afterwards, while progesterone begins to increase.
2. The training considerations are similar to the late follicular phase: oestrogen-driven glycogen sparing and elevated injury risk through joint effects.

4. Luteal Phase

1. The luteal phase runs from ovulation to the start of the next menstruation, with progesterone produced at a higher level to prepare the uterus for implantation.
2. High progesterone raises core body temperature, increasing hydration demand and the risk of heat stress.
3. Athletes may experience premenstrual symptoms such as bloating, food cravings, and mood fluctuations.
4. Training intensity may need to be reduced in favour of low-to-moderate intensity exercise, aerobic training, flexibility, and recovery activities, depending on how the individual feels.

The menstrual cycle changes substrate use during exercise

During different phases of the menstrual cycle, women experience variations in their ability to utilize carbohydrates and fat as energy sources.

Late follicular phase

1. Rising oestrogen plays a role in enhancing fat oxidation while sparing glycogen stores.
2. During exercise, women tend to rely more on fat as a fuel source, which can help spare glycogen for longer bouts of exercise.

Luteal phase

1. The combined high oestrogen and progesterone levels further enhance the glycogen-sparing effect and shift metabolism toward greater fat use.
2. Female athletes may need to adjust carbohydrate intake or fuelling strategies during the luteal phase to maintain energy availability for high-intensity efforts.

The menstrual cycle can reduce thermoregulatory efficiency in the luteal phase

1. The menstrual cycle influences thermoregulatory processes, particularly during the luteal phase, when body temperature tends to rise.
2. During the luteal phase, elevated progesterone levels can increase body temperature, leading to reduced thermoregulatory efficiency.
3. This can make high-intensity exercise feel more challenging, especially in hot environments.

Menstrual cycle and optimal performance window

1. The optimal performance window refers to the period in the menstrual cycle when an athlete is most capable of handling high-intensity exercise and achieving peak performance.

Late follicular and ovulatory phases

1. These are the phases when women generally experience the best performance in terms of strength, endurance, and cardiovascular capacity due to higher oestrogen levels.
2. Surveys of elite athletes show that the largest proportion prefer to compete just after their period, during the late follicular phase.

Luteal phase

1. This phase is typically not optimal for peak performance due to the effects of progesterone.
2. This can increase fatigue, raise core temperature, and reduce overall energy levels.

Menstrual cycle and the athlete population

1. Understanding the menstrual cycle is particularly important when designing training for female athletes, as the effects of hormonal fluctuations can vary depending on the individual.
2. Some women may experience mild or no symptoms, while others may face significant challenges that can impact their performance.

Individual responses to training vary by genetics and stimulus

1. Genetic inheritance makes an important contribution to individual variation in acute and chronic responses to training.
2. High responders show exceptionally large improvements, while low or non-responders show very small or no improvement on the same programme.
3. Response patterns are not consistent across variables: an athlete with little change in VO2 max may still have a strong response in submaximal heart rate or strength.
4. More recent work suggests that true global non-responders are unlikely to exist; instead, "stubborn" responders adapt once the stimulus (intensity, frequency, duration, or mode) is changed.